“Ross and Livingston trace the rise of roadway “surveillance capitalism” — a term they borrow from scholar Shoshana Zuboff — as far back as the invention of the modern driver’s license, which they say has gradually evolved into “a master key” to a vast trove of personal information well beyond what’s printed on our IDs themselves. And they say law enforcement officers don’t just draw on that trove when they pull over a driver suspected of a crime; federal agencies like the FBI and ICE also make “extensive use of their unmonitored access to DMV data,” using facial recognition software to cross-match driver’s license images with surveillance footage as they investigate crimes.

That software, though, is often prone to errors, particularly when trained on people with darker skin — as is the automated license plate reader software that many cities rely on to catch speeders and red light runners, which some studies show are wrong around 10 percent of the time. Because both kinds of technology, by their nature, are used to help search for perpetrators among of sea of innocent people, they end up cataloging vast reams of data on the movements of roadway users not suspected of any crime at all.”

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